Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Forced Traction: An Error

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | Forced Traction: An Error: Lupine Publishers | Journal of Veterinary Science Introduction Immediate cause of dystocia requires certain preparations an...

Lupine Publishers | Straw Based Biorefinery

Lupine Publishers | Journal of Chemical Sciences

Abstract

In India energy security and exploring the production of valuable chemicals , which are otherwise mostly imported have become imperative necessity The advantage of abundant availability of paddy and its straws, specifically the rice straw in India are taken as an example to establish a perfect Bio-refinery . In these paper possibilities of production of chemicals and energy by Chemical, Biochemical and Thermo chemical platforms are explored. Possible alternatives on the problems of stubble burning in some stares of India are put forward. However, studies on the optimal design, and economic viability of each routes remain to be evaluated.

Introduction

Biorefineries similar to petroleum refineries is a facility developed, engineered and designed optimally where renewable energy (heat & power) and multiples of chemical products and can be profitably manufactured from biomass with best known environmentally benign process technologies through biochemical and thermo chemical platforms. The energy production from bipomass is also Greenhouse neutral. Cellulosic biomass, because of its massive availability, can be a truly biorefinery representing a feedstock for biofuels and valuable chemicals. Agricultural residues such as straws are ideal candidates for establishing a biorefinery in India. Presently major quantity of straws is used as domestic fuels in rural areas. Rice Straw is produced from Rice Paddy. The various products and by-products are shown in the schematic diagram (Figure 1). On an average, there is 20% husks, 10% bran, 3% polishings, 1-17% broken rice and 50-66% polished rice. Generally Rice Paddy by-products is on an average 30% weight of paddy3).

Figure 1: Products and Bye-products from Rice Paddy (2).

The residual wastes (stubbles) are usually burnt in the field which leads to severe air pollution problems due to discharge of gaseous pollutants including CO, Ozone , N2O, NOx, SO2 , CH4, particulate matters ,smokes and smogs, hydrocarbons. Open burning of crop stubble also results in the emissions of harmful chemicals like polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH’s) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) referred as as dioxins, besides loss of nutritional values of soil intermas of organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium in many states of India, especially Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. This is not that extent in other part of India. The main reasons are: larger length of the stubbles remains after harvesting in those states which cannot be economically covered under soil to enhance the fertility of the land and attempts to burn these long projected straws over the agricultural land. In the following paragraphs some alternatives to straw stubble burning are suggested [1].
Due to continuous depletion of non-renewable energy resources and high cost of chemicals due to import, at present there is a worldwide attention towards development of renewable resources of energy and chemicals for sustainable development for the welfare of mankind. For example: Economic production of bioethanol from lignocellusic biomass. Conversion of lignocellulosic plant materials to biochemicals is also regarded as one of the most promising alternatives to fossil fuels. Most abundantly available biomass in the countries like India and China are straws (rice, wheat, oats, rye, barleys, Zea Mays, corn stalks etc.), out of which rice straw occupies the first position and followed by wheat straw in terms of availability in Eastern, and North Eastern Indian states (West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa, Manipur etc.) whereas reverse is true for Northern India (U.P. Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan etc.).

Conventional but Economic Uses of Rice Straw and Stubbles

a) Soil improver to increase the fertility
b) Manuring/Composting with cowdung and others etc.
c) Briquettes
d) mats
e) Mushroom cultivation(as growth substrate)
f) Vegetables Cultivation
g) Animal Bedding material
h) Poultry Litter & Mulch
i) Feed for ruminants/Animal feed
j) Packaging goods for transporting goods &machineries
k) Frost prevention in horticulture
l) Strawberries (preventing damage to the fruit)
m) Thatching
n) Rope making
o) Traditional building materials, fibre boards,Particle board, insulation material
p) Energy (heat, power, fuels)
q) An intergrated solid state fermentation approach for production of enzymes from agro-wastes including straws
Lignocellulosic biomass could thus be utilized for both production of biofuels as well as biochemical’s due to its nature of renewability, low price, widespread availability and containing high content of pentose and hexose sugar polymers. These are detailed elsewhere [2-6]. Straw and Stubbles can be used for various Chemicals, valuable products and energy. The most notable products which can economically manufactured are: Pulp & Paper, Particle Board, Pulp and Paper Board, Straw board, board of rice husk.
Energy technologies and thermal combustion consists of Non- Conventional uses of straws. Valuable chemicals include Cellulose, High Alpha cellulose, Plastics, Fuels and Energy,Bio-gas and in situ, Bio-oil, Nanocellulose and nano composites, Pentosans, Xylose, Xylitol, α-Cellulose, Glucose , Fructose, Hydroxy methyl Furan, Ethanol and host of many other chemicals [7-10]. These are shown in Figure 2.
Refineries based on Cellulose, Ethanol, Sucrose, Glucose, Lignin have been proposed and given elsewhere various Unit Operations and Processes involved to produce a biorefinery are as under:
a) Pulping
b) Gasification
c) Pyrolysis
d) Destructive distillation
e) Plasma Treatment
f) Chemical Treatment
g) Electron Irradiation

Chemical platform

a) Activated carbon
b) Chemical transformation through Catalyst(Sn-beta zeolites)
c) Synthetic Fuel using Solar Furnace
d) Cellulose nano crystals and nanocomposites:
Cellulose nanocrystals have been largely applied as reinforcing fillers in the preparation of nano composites materials with improved mechanical and barrier properties.

Figure 2: Products and Bye-products from Rice Paddy (2).

Bio-chemical platform

Bio-chemical platform
a) Renewable fuels: Ethanol, Biodiesel,Butanol, Hydrogen
b) Chemicals: Acetone,Furfurol,Propanediol, Ketones etc.
c) Organic Acids:Acetic, Lactic , Succinic, Gluconic, Butyric etc.
d) Bio-Energy: Lignate, Methane, Bio-gas, Heat, Electricity
e) Food & Feed: Single Cell Protein,Fat,Fiber, Sugar etc.

Chemistry of Formation

Monosachharides

D-Xylose,D-glucose, L-arabinose,Xylitol,fructose,D-mannose,Dgalactose

Hemicellulose

Furfural, through acid treatment, Biogas by anaerobic Digestion, concentrating to Animal Feed. Fructose /Fruit sugar →Hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) →catalytic processes → Plastics, diesel fuel additives, or even diesel fuel [11,12].

Chemical or Biochemical Platforms: Dilute acid hydrolysis of lignocelluloses:

Acids: Carboxylic acids such as formic acid, acetic acid, 3-hydroxy propionic acids, succinic acid, fumaric acids, Malic acids, Itaconic acids, Levulinic acid, Glucaric acids, glucuronic acid, Vanillic acids, Syringic acids, Ferulic acids, p-coumarlic acid. Amino acids like Aspartic acids,Glutamic acids, Aldehyde: Syringaldehyde
Polyphenols: glycerol, Arabitol, Xylitol, Sorbitol Lactones such as 3-hydroxy butyrolactone
Phenolics: p-hydroxy benzoic acids and vanillin However,aldopentose xylose (20-40% of the total carbohydrates are normally found in agricultural residues.
Reaction Schemes (4,9,21,29,30)
Chemical reaction consists of series, parallel and combination of series-parallel reactions
Cellulose (Glucan)→ Oligosaccharides →Glucose →HMF→Levulinic acid
Hemicellulose →Oligosachharides→Sugars( xylose,arabinose, glucose, mannose, galactose)
Pentoses ( Xylose/ Arabinose)→ Furfural→ Furfural resinification and condensation products
Hexoses(Glucose/ Fructose ) → HMF→ Levulinic acid+Formic acid→Succinic acid

Furfural and HMF

Figure 3 Reaction Scheme and Kinetic models are developed (Pentosan( both xylan and arabinan) is hydrolyzed to both aldopentoses which are converted into two or more steps into furfural. Loss of furfural takes place due to side reactions which leads to condensation and to the formation of resins. Both levulinic acid and furfural can be produced from straw or any biomass & levulinic acid can be converted to succinic acid and formic acid [13].

Figure 3: Products and Bye-products from Rice Paddy (2).

Chemistry of formation

Xylan Xylose Furfural: Hexosan →Hexose (Unit Cellulose) → 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural + 5-methyl -2-furfural
Mechanism:
Hydrolysis:
xylan + water →H+Xylose
arbinan + water →H+arabinose
Dehydration:

Furan derivatives such as Furfural (2-furaldehyde), HMF (5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde), 2,5 furan dicarboxylic acids(33-35) are most important chemicals. HMF is produced industrially on a modest scale as a carbon-neutral feedstock for the production of fuels and other chemicals such as levulinic acid, gamma-valerolactone, or other byproducts. HMF itself has few applications and it is primarily produced in order to be converted into other more useful compounds [14-20]. Of these the most important is 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid, which has been proposed as a replacement for terephthalic acid in the production of polyesters. HMF can be converted to 2,5-dimethylfuran (DMF), a liquid that is a potential biofuel with a greater energy content than bioethanol. Hydrogenation gives 2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl) furan. Acid-catalysed hydrolysis converts HMF into gamma-valerolactone, with loss of formic acid. HMF is practically absent in fresh food, but it is naturally generated in sugar-containing food during heat-treatments like drying or cooking. Along with many other flavor- and color-related substances, HMF is formed in the Maillard reaction as well as during caramelization. In these foods it is also slowly generated during storage. Acid conditions favour generation of HMF. HMF is a well known component of baked goods. Upon toasting bread, the amount increases from 14.8 (5 min.) to 2024.8 mg/kg (60 min). It is a good wine storage time−temperature marker, especially in sweet wines such as Madeira and those sweetened with grape concentrate arrope [21-24].

Fermentation Technology

Bio-Ethanol

Sachharomyces cerevisiae, Zymomonous Mobilis, Clostidium thermocellum, Ruminococcus albus- a bacterium are generally used for conversion of cellulose to ethanol. Theoretically 1kg of sucrose on inversion, gives 1.053 kg of invert sugar, glucose and fructose combined together. Further,one tone of invert sugar yields 644.8 litres of absolute alcohol(ethanol of 100% ) or 678.7 litres of rectified spirit.The net CO2 emission of burning a biofuel like ethanol is zero since the cO2 emitted on combustion is equal to that aabsorbed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis during growth of the plant(sugarcane) used to manufacture ethanol.
Inversion: C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁+H₂O→C₆H₁₂O₆+C₆H₁₂O₆
Sucrose + Water →Invertase→Glucose + Fructose (Invert Sugars)
Fermentation: C₆H₁₂O₆→2C₂H₅OH+2CO₂+27.8kCals xymase
Oxidation: C₂H₆O+3O₂→2CO₂+3H₂O+Δ
Combined equation: C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂→6CO₂+6H₂O+Δ
6CO₂+6h₂O+hv(light)→C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂

Butanol

Biobutanol is produced by microbial fermentation, similar to bioethanol, and can be made from cellulosic feedstocks such as straws. The most commonly used microorganisms are strains of Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium beijerinckii, C. Saccharoperbutylacetonicum and C. saccharobutylicum. In addition to butanol, these organisms also produce acetone and ethanol, so the process is often referred to as the “ABE (acetone-butanolethanol) fermentation [25-30]. Production of lactic acid from straw derived cellulose,cellulase production with Tricoderma citriviridae on solid bed, use of acid hydrolysates for lactic acid production using various strains such as Lactobacillus delbrueckii or lactobacillus pentosus can be explored.A number of products can be produced from sucrose as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Products and Bye-products from Rice Paddy (2).

Anaerobic Digestion

Biogas production (25,31-32), Anaerobic conversion of carbohydrate /cellulosics, especially of agricultural residues , has been considered for biogas ( methane) production which is typically, CH4=50-65%, CO2=35-50%, H2O=30-160g/m3, H2S=1.5-12.5g/ m3 inn presence of methane producing bacteria. Typically some of the methane forming microorganisms likes Methanaomonas, Methanococcous mazei n.sp. methannobacterium sohn genii n.sp. etc. are employed. The two best described pathways involve the use of acetic acid or inorganic carbon dioxide as terminal electron acceptors:
CO₂+4h₂→CH₄+2H₂O
CH₃COOH→CH₄+2CO₂
During anaerobic respiration of carbohydrates, H2 and acetate are formed in a ratio of 2:1 or lower, so H2 contributes only ca. 33% to methanogenesis [31], with acetate contributing the greater proportion. In some circumstances, for instance in the rumen, where acetate is largely absorbed into the bloodstream of the host, the contribution of H2 to methanogenesis is greater.
Buswell and Symons universal equation:
C_nH_aO_b+(n-a/4-b/2)H₂O→(n/2-a/8+b/4)CO₂+(n/2+a/8-b/4)CH₄

Thermo-chemical platform

Gasification Technology
The basic principles of Gasification technology are as under:
a. Steam Reforming of Straws:
Superheated steam reacts endothermally (consumes heat) with the carbonaceous components of straws to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide fuel gases (synthesis gas or syngas)
b. Steam Reforming reaction: H₂ O +C + Heat → H₂ +CO
Water –gas shift reactions also occur simultaneously with the steam reforming reactions to yield additional hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
c. Water gas shift reaction: H₂ O +CO→ H_2- +CO₂

Conclusion

India being an agriculture based country with plenty of biomass renewable resources can produce potential bio-products and bio energy at a cheaper rate compared to other renewable sources. Being carbon neutral these resources is eco friendly, yields much less green house gaseous emissions compared to fossil fuels [32- 37]. In this present paper various alternatives for straw utilization, specifically the plausible solutions of current problems of straw stubble burnings in a few Indian states are highlighted. However detailed optimum design of process and plant with economic feasibility need to work out.

For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website: http://www.lupinepublishers.com/

For more Journal of Chemical Sciences Journal articles Please Click Here: https://lupinepublishers.com/chemistry-journal/

To Know More About Open Access Publishers Please Click on Lupine Publishers https://lupinepublishers.us/

Follow on Linkedin : https://www.linkedin.com/company/lupinepublishers
Follow on Twitter   :  https://twitter.com/lupine_online

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | The Use of Epidural Anaesthesi...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | The Use of Epidural Anaesthesi...: Lupine Publishers | The Journal of Veterinary Science Abstract General anaesthesia is an essential component of modern m...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | The Use of Epidural Anaesthesi...

Lupine Publishers: Lupine Publishers | The Use of Epidural Anaesthesi...: Lupine Publishers | The Journal of Veterinary Science Abstract General anaesthesia is an essential component of modern m...

Lupine Publishers: Change of Evaporations Leads to Climate Change

Lupine Publishers: Change of Evaporations Leads to Climate Change: Lupine Publishers- Environmental and Soil Science Short Communication The basis of all floods and droughts is water, its e...

Lupine Publishers: Optimization of Chitosan Activated Carbon Nanocomp...

Lupine Publishers: Optimization of Chitosan Activated Carbon Nanocomp...: Journal of Chemical Sciences | Lupine Publishers   Abstract First, the minimum energy (geometry optimization DFT-DMol3) i...

Lupine Publishers | Molecular Characterization of Chikungunya Virus in Serum- Relevance for Disease Management

Lupine Publishers |Journal of Chemical Sciences

Abstract

Background: Chikungunya Virus is a single stranded RNA virus of the genus alphavirus. The transmission of this virus occurs by the bite of infected mosquitoes. It is characterized by an abrupt onset of fever frequently accompanied by joint pain.
Aim: Molecular Characterization of Chikungunya Virus in Serum- Relevance for Disease Management.
Methods and Materials: 30 cases were considered having symptom of fever suspected to have chikungunya. RNA was isolated from magnetic beads methods which were further studied for Real Time-PCR (RT-PCR).
Results: Among the 30 cases suspected for chikungunya fever, only 18 were positive for the same. Hence, the prevalence was calculated to be 60%. About 39% of the positive cases were in the age range of 21-40 years, which is the active age group of the total positive cases, 66.66% were males and 33.33% were females. The virus can be even transmitted together as a co-infection. Patients infected with chikunguniya virus are more likely to experience symptoms of high fever, severe polyarthralgia and rash with lymphopenia.
Keywords: Chikunguniya; Real time polymerase chain reaction; Aedes aegypti; Aedes albopictus
Abbrevations: CHIK V: Chikungunya Virus; CMRL: Central Molecular Research Laboratory; SGRRIM & HS: Shri Guru Ram Rai Institute of Medical & Health Science; CDNA: Complementary DNA; MRNA: Messenger RNA

Introduction

Chikungunya Virus (CHIKV) is an alphavirus with a positive sense single-stranded RNA genome of approximately 11.6kb, 60- 70nm diameter capsid and a phospholipid envelope. It is sensitive to desiccation and to temperatures above 58°C. It is a member of the Semliki Forest Virus complex. The transmission of this virus occurs with the bite of infected mosquitoes of the genus Aedes. In addition, blood born transmission is possible [1-3]. The incubation period ranges from 3 to 12 days. The onset is usually abrupt and the acute stage is characterized by sudden high fever, incapacitating arthralgia, myalgias and skin rash. Chronic arthritis may develop in the patients and is associated with fever, asthenia and exacerbation of arthralgia, inflammatory polyarthritis, and stiffness [4,5]. The Alphavirus group comprises of 28 viruses, six of which can cause human joint disorders-namely chikungunya virus, o’nyong-nyong virus (central Africa), Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses (Australia and the Pacific), Sindbis virus (cosmopolitan), and Mayaro virus (South America, French Guyana). These alphaviruses share certain antigenic determinants [6-9].

Materials and Methods

30 clinical samples were considered in this study. Blood samples were taken from the suspected cases of Chikungunya from the different departments of Shri mahant Indiresh Hospital, dehradun (Uttarakhand) and further processed at Central Molecular Research Laboratory (CMRL), Shri Guru Ram Rai Institute of Medical & Health science (SGRRIM & HS), Patel nagar, dehradun (U.K.) for the molecular characterization of Chikungunya Virus.

Collection of EDTA Blood & Separation of Serum/Plasma

Whole blood samples were centrifuged at 5,000rpm for 10- 15 minutes at 4°C. The serum was separated from blood & then subjected for nucleic acid extraction. Then Isolation of RNA for the detection of chikungunya virus was done by magnetic beads method where Magnetic carriers bearing an immobilized affinity or hydrophobic ligand or ion exchange groups or magnetic biopolymer particles having affinity to the isolated structure are mixed with the sample containing target compounds. The specimens with target nucleic acid are processed by lysis buffer and then the nucleic acids are efficiently bound to the specifically modified magnetic beads. The beads were removed from the solution and attached to the tube wall manually using a magnetic separator stand. After washing, purification and elution, ultra-purified RNA can be obtained. After RNA was obtained master mix was prepared for chikungunya RNA for qualitative detection by Real Time PCR. Reverse transcription was done (RT-PCR) for the extracted RNA specimens. In this method, RNA was first transcribed into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reverse transcriptase from total RNA or messenger RNA (mRNA). The cDNA is then used as the template for the qPCR reaction.

Results

Among the 30 cases suspected for chikungunya fever, only 18 were positive for the same. Hence, the prevalence was calculated to be 60%. About 39% of the positive cases were in the age group ranging in between 21-40 years, which is the active age group of the total positive cases, 66.66% were males and 33.33% were females. Ct value in molecular profiling indicates that the sample is positive for chikungunya viral genome whereas no Ct value is indication of negative results for chikungunya. Ct value for internal control was in the range of 14-17 shows that the result is valid (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Amplification curves in Real time PCR for Chikungunya virus.

Discussion and Conclusion

Chikungunya (CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne disease caused by an RNA alphavirus of the Togaviridae family. The main mosquito vectors are the aggressive Aedesaegypti and Aedesalbopictus. The most common presentation of CHIKV is acute onset of fever and polyarthralgia, sometimes followed by a macupopular rash. Other associated symptoms can include headache, myalgia, nausea and vomiting. These symptoms typically occur 3 to 7 days after the mosquito bite and generally last 7 to 10 days. Rare complication of CHIKV can include uveitis, retinitis, myocarditis, hepatitis, nephritis, bullos skin lesions, hemorrhage, meningoencephalitis. The clinical manifestations of CHIKV can be very similar to dengue fever, which is transmitted by the same species of the mosquito. The 2 viruses can be even transmitted together as a co-infection. Patients infected with CHIK are more likely to experience symptoms of high fever, severe polyarthralgia and rash with lymphopenia, whereas patients with dengue fever are more likely to have symptoms of hemorrhage, shock and death with associated laboratory derangements of neutropenia and thrombocytopenia. However, because of the close similarities, dengue fever should be strongly considered in the differential diagnosis of patients suspected with CHIK. Conformational testing for CHIK can be performed in one of the three ways. These methods include viral culture if tested within first three days of illness, PCR in the first eight days, or antibody serology after the first three days of illness. Other laboratory abnormalities may include lymphopenia, thrombocytopenia, elevated creatinine and elevated hepatic transaminases. Treatment is primarily supportive. The preventive measure among the individual level included the use of mosquito repellents like coils, body creams, mosquito nets, etc. At the community level, it is important to ensure that there are no collections of water in household vessels or around dwelling places. The usual recommendation is that on every fifth day, all the vessels, which contain water, should be emptied; this observance of a dry day breaks the life cycle of the mosquito [10].
From above discussion, we conclude that, Chikungunya fever is self-limiting, the morbidity can be very high in major outbreaks, resulting in heavy social and economic tolls. The prevention of the disease requires a planned approach, besides knowledge and awareness on the early warning signs. An integrated vector management through the elimination of the breeding sites, the use of anti-adult and anti-larval measures and personal protection will contribute to the prevention of outbreaks. A community empowerment and mobilization is crucial for the prevention and control of Chikungunya.

For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website: http://www.lupinepublishers.com/

For more Journal of Chemical Sciences articles Please Click Here: https://lupinepublishers.com/chemistry-journal/

To Know More About Open Access Publishers Please Click on Lupine Publishers: https://lupinepublishersgroup.com/